Is the tendency for people to see their environment only as it affects them and as it is consistent with their expectations?
Cognitive biases are systematic patterns of deviation from norm and/or rationality in judgment. They are often studied in psychology, sociology and behavioral economics.[1] Show
Although the reality of most of these biases is confirmed by reproducible research,[2][3] there are often controversies about how to classify these biases or how to explain them.[4] Several theoretical causes are known for some cognitive biases, which provides a classification of biases by their common generative mechanism (such as noisy information-processing[5]). Gerd Gigerenzer has criticized the framing of cognitive biases as errors in judgment, and favors interpreting them as arising from rational deviations from logical thought.[6] Explanations include information-processing rules (i.e., mental shortcuts), called heuristics, that the brain uses to produce decisions or judgments. Biases have a variety of forms and appear as cognitive ("cold") bias, such as mental noise,[5] or motivational ("hot") bias, such as when beliefs are distorted by wishful thinking. Both effects can be present at the same time.[7][8] There are also controversies over some of these biases as to whether they count as useless or irrational, or whether they result in useful attitudes or behavior. For example, when getting to know others, people tend to ask leading questions which seem biased towards confirming their assumptions about the person. However, this kind of confirmation bias has also been argued to be an example of social skill; a way to establish a connection with the other person.[9] Although this research overwhelmingly involves human subjects, some findings that demonstrate bias have been found in non-human animals as well. For example, loss aversion has been shown in monkeys and hyperbolic discounting has been observed in rats, pigeons, and monkeys.[10] Belief, decision-making and behavioral[edit]These biases affect belief formation, reasoning processes, business and economic decisions, and human behavior in general. Anchoring bias[edit]The anchoring bias, or focalism, is the tendency to rely too heavily—to "anchor"—on one trait or piece of information when making decisions (usually the first piece of information acquired on that subject).[11][12] Anchoring bias includes or involves the following:
Apophenia[edit]The tendency to perceive meaningful connections between unrelated things.[17] The following are types of apophenia:
Availability heuristic[edit]The availability heuristic (also known as the availability bias) is the tendency to overestimate the likelihood of events with greater "availability" in memory, which can be influenced by how recent the memories are or how unusual or emotionally charged they may be.[20] The availability heuristic includes or involves the following:
Cognitive dissonance[edit]
Confirmation bias[edit]Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, focus on and remember information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.[31] There are multiple other cognitive biases which involve or are types of confirmation bias:
Egocentric bias[edit]Egocentric bias is the tendency to rely too heavily on one's own perspective and/or have a higher opinion of oneself than reality.[34] The following are forms of egocentric bias:
Extension neglect[edit]The following are forms of extension neglect:
False priors[edit]
Biases based on false priors include:
Framing effect[edit]The framing effect is the tendency to draw different conclusions from the same information, depending on how that information is presented. Forms of the framing effect include:
Logical fallacy[edit]Logical fallacy biases include:
Prospect theory[edit]The following relate to prospect theory:
Self-assessment[edit]
Truthiness[edit]
Other[edit]
[edit]Association fallacy[edit]Association fallacies include:
Attribution bias[edit]Attribution bias includes:
Conformity[edit]Conformity is involved in the following:
Ingroup bias[edit]Ingroup bias is the tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others they perceive to be members of their own groups. It is related to the following:
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Memory [edit]In psychology and cognitive science, a memory bias is a cognitive bias that either enhances or impairs the recall of a memory (either the chances that the memory will be recalled at all, or the amount of time it takes for it to be recalled, or both), or that alters the content of a reported memory. There are many types of memory bias, including: Misattribution of memory[edit]The misattributions include:
Other[edit]
See also[edit]
Footnotes[edit]
References[edit]
External links[edit]
When the knowledge skills and behaviors used on the job are maintained by the learner?Occurs when the knowledge, skills, and behaviors used on the job are maintained by the learner once training ends and generalized to the workplace once the learner returns to the job.
Which of the following should be the most common form of reinforcement?-In general positive reinforcement and extinction should be the most common forms of reinforcement used by managers to create learning among their employees. Timing of reinforcement is crucial as well, the timing of when the contingencies are applied is referred to as schedules of reinforcement.
Is the process of generating and selecting from a set of alternatives in hopes of solving a problem?Decision making refers to the process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem. Learning allows employees to make better decisions by making those decisions more quickly and by being able to generate a better set of alternatives.
Which of the following is a characteristic of tacit knowledge?Tacit knowledge can be described as experiences, ideas, and skills that an individual has but cannot be expressed. It is intuitive and hence very difficult to articulate in a tangible form. Sometimes people know certain things, but they are not aware of it.
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